Richard A. Teague Design Page

Design Gallery

Richard A. Teague was a car designer that most people today have never heard of. However, as obscure as he was, during the 60's and 70's the vehicles he styled had a considerable impact on public taste, both good and bad. This page attempts to tell some of this story.

Teague was responsible for the design of many American Motors Corporation (AMC) cars and Jeep vehicles. He developed the characteristic and now legendary Gremlin, Pacer, as well as the highly unusual Matador coupe. His successes included the Rambler American, AMC Javelin, AMX Hornet, and subsequent successful transformation of the compact Hornet/Gremlin platform into the AMC Concord, Spirit and Eagle. Teague was also responsible for a number of concept cars and often lobbied for their production, such as the compact Tarpon which led to the Marlin, and continuing production of the two-seat AMX models after 1970. According to experts, many of Teague's designs still look fresh. I certainly agree, like the 1968 AMX GT shown above.

Many concept cars bore his signature design ideas that were later incorporated into production models, especially AMX GT which foreshadowed the 1970 AMC Gremlin. Teague styled a truncated kammback rear for this short wheelbase sports car that was then used on the Gremlin. A series of "Concept 80" show cars also addressed models that AMC was considering in the future. They were Teague's variations on the company's existing vehicle platforms.

His last handiwork can be seen in the highly popular downsized 1984 Jeep Cherokee (XJ), a "masterpiece" design and paradigmatic model that was built in the United States from 1983 through 2001 and in China to 2005. The last cars he worked on were AMC's new large platform (Premier) that was scheduled to debut in 1988. Teague was able to fashion a very roomy interior for these cars. His design was very aerodynamic and the two-door model was to feature hidden headlamps. However, the coupe was never produced. Instead, Giorgetto Giugiaro was contracted to provide sharper edges for the four-door sedan that came out as the Eagle Premier.

Teague was a noted automobile historian and collected classic and rare vehicles, as well as other auto memorabilia. He mentioned that he had owned "400 or 500" cars. Teague's collection included a rare AMX/3. It was donated to the San Diego Automotive Museum along with most of his papers when he passed away in 1991.

1960'S CONCEPT CARS

After World War II, Teague penned a design for a pre-Henry J economy car for Kaiser Motors. In 1948, he accepted a position in the General Motors design studios headed by Edmund Anderson. He started as an apprentice stylist and eventually graduated to the Cadillac advanced design group. Teague also worked on the famed 1950 Oldsmobile Rocket. During the 1950s outlandish use of chrome on cars, Teague described how two sets of overlay designs were made for Harley Earl to choose from. Both chrome trim sets had been put on one Oldsmobile prototype by mistake. Earl saw it and ordered it produced that way although the stylists were horrified.

In 1951, Packard Motor Corporation recruited Teague and offered him to be the Chief Stylist following John Reinhart's resignation. The restyled senior Packard line for 1955 was the outcome of Teague's keen eye for detail and his ability to produce significant changes based on limited budgets. The facelift made Packard’s 1951 body shell look almost new. However, the company was not doing well following the purchase of struggling Studebaker. Moreover, sales of the luxury Packard collapsed during 1956. Teague designed the last Packard concept car, the Predictor.

By 1957, the entire Packard styling team moved to Chrysler Corporation. Consequently, Teague became chief stylist of Chrysler's studio. However, because of management conflicts, Teague decided to work on non-automotive assignments for an independent design firm.

Eager to get back to designing automobiles, Teague joined American Motors Corporation (AMC) as a member of Edmund E. Anderson's design team in 1959. When Anderson left AMC in 1961, Teague was named principal designer. The first cars influenced by Teague's styling were the 1963 Rambler Classic and Ambassador, the first all-new cars from AMC since 1956. Teague was promoted to the post of Vice President in 1964. He held that executive position until he retired from AMC in 1983. At his retirement, Teague joked that the only Detroit auto company he had not worked for was Ford.

Teague was often quoted as referring to his many years at AMC years as "Camelot", although he faced very stiff budget restrictions at the small independent automaker. Nevertheless, Teague worked out relative miracles compared to the spending norms in this industry. For example, he was able to design the totally new 1964 compact Rambler American by using the doors from AMC's large-sized automobiles. Teague was a master of designing many variations of cars for AMC from a very limited number of basic stampings. The AMC Cavalier was a mid-1960s concept car developed to demonstrate this technique of interchangeable body panels. The right front and left rear fenders were identical, as well as the panels for doors, hood, and deck lid all interchanged. AMC’s production platforms designed by Teague featured numerous interchangeable door skins, glass, and more. For example, the front and rear bumpers on the 1970 AMC Hornet were cleverly made from the same stamping. This design talent yielded significant cost savings for the company. Chilton's Automotive Industries magazine named Teague "Man of the Year" in their February 1, 1976 issue.

AMC TARPON/MARLINs

Early in his career with AMC, Richard had learned that the company was just not willing to spend millions on all-new tooling, but its top brass was always willing to consider imaginative use of existing tooling and certain spin-off ideas. And just such an approach went into the creation of the Tarpon, which eventually lead to the Marlin. The Tarpon was shown initially at the national convention of the Society of Automotive Engineers in Detroit's Cobo Hall in January 1964. Although the general public does not attend such functions, AMC's public relations staff announced the car with almost as much fanfare as through it were actually going into production. The Tarpon represented a unique approach to the fastback styling concept. A two-door hardtop, it was mounted on the Rambler American's short 106-inch wheelbase and measured only 180 inches long. A deep gold-flecked vermillion paint job set off the 13-inch aluminum wheels, both of which served to accentuate the Tarpon's sleek, low-slung 52.5-inch-high silhouette.

To present a frontal impression of fleetness, the special show model featured a deeply angled, compound curved windshield. Prominent from the rear were the wedge-shaped roof, large skylight rear window, and massive rectangular taillights. The Tarpon's instrument panel boasted a complete array of dial instruments beneath a deeply padded safety hood. Emphasizing the sporty-car motif was a sports-car steering wheel made of spring aluminum, with a recessed hub and a rim trimmed with natural walnut. Both Abernethy and Thomas A. Coupe, sales vice-president, were excited about the new design. However, both were guarded in saying so because they knew profits were generated by products in the field, not by ideas on paper or on turntables in special shows. Abernethy emphasized that the Rambler Tarpon was a "styling study to highlight the advanced design work of the corporation's stylists who created the record-selling 1964 line of Rambler Ambassadors, Classics, and Americans."

AMC JAVELIN

AMC MATADOR COUPE

The 1974 model year introduced an aerodynamically styled fastback coupe with pronounced "tunneled" headlight surrounds. The Matador coupe was the only all-new model in the popular mid-size car segment. The coupe was designed by AMC's Vice President of Styling, Richard A. Teague, with input from Mark Donohue, the famous race car driver. Reportedly Teague designed the coupe's front as an homage to one of the first AMCs he designed, the 1964 Rambler American.^[2] Many were amazed that AMC came up with the fast, stylish Matador, considering the automaker's size and limited resources.^[4]

The coupe's wind-shaped look was enhanced by a very long hood and a short rear deck. The four-door and station wagon models did not share the complete redesign of the coupe. The Matador coupe stands out as one of the more distinctive and controversial designs of the 1970s after the AMC Pacer. The Matador coupe was named "Best Styled Car of 1974" by the editors of Car and Driver magazine.^[5]

Sales of the coupe were brisk with 62,629 Matador Coupes delivered for its introductory year, up sharply from the 7,067 Matador hardtops sold in 1973.^[6] This is a respectable record that went against the drop in the overall market during 1974 and the decline in popularity of intermediate-sized coupes after the 1973 oil crisis. After it outsold the four-door Matadors by nearly 25,000 units in 1974, sales dropped to less than 10,000 in 1977, and then down just 2,006 in the coupe's final year.^[2] Nearly 100,000 Matador Coupes in total were produced from 1974 through 1978.

Design plans for a sedan and wagon based on the coupe's styling themes did not reach production.

A special Oleg Cassini edition of the Matador coupe was available for the 1974 and 1975 model years. American Motors had the famous American fashion designer develop a more elegant luxury oriented model for the new coupe. Cassini was renowned in Hollywood and high-society for making elegant ready-to-wear dresses, including those worn by Jacqueline Kennedy.

The Cassini Coupe was unlike all the other personal luxury cars. The new Matador did not have the typical vintage styling cues of formal upright grille and squared-off roof with opera windows. The Cassini version was only available on the Brougham two-door models that included standard features such as individually adjustable reclining seats. Cassini Coupes could be had in only black, copper, or white, and all came with a vinyl covered roof. It also featured copper-colored trim in the grille, headlamp bezels, in turbine-type full wheel covers, and within the rear license plate recess.

The interior was a Cassini hallmark featuring a comfortable and plush environment. A special black fabric with copper metal buttons on the seats and door panels was set off by extra thick copper carpeting. Additional copper accents were on the steering wheel, door pulls, and on the instrument panel. Embroidered Cassini medallions were featured on the headrests. The glove compartment door, trunk lid, front fender, and hood featured Cassini's signature.

In 1976, a "Barcelona" option offered an alternative to the personal luxury cars offered by other automakers such as the Chrysler Cordoba and Chevrolet Monte Carlo. For 1977 and 1978, the Barcelona coupe featured a padded Landau roof and opera windows, styling cues that were required at that time by buyers in the highly popular two-door "personal luxury" market segment. At first it was available in only one distinctive two-tone paint pattern consisting of Golden Ginger Metallic with Sand Tan. In 1978, the Barcelona came in a second color scheme: an Autumn Red Metallic on Claret Metallic combination.

The Barcelona included numerous comfort and appearance upgrades in addition to the extensive standard equipment that came on all Matadors. The special items were: individual reclining seats in velveteen crush fabric with woven accent stripes, custom door trim panels, unique headliner, headlight bezels painted accent color, black trunk carpet, rear sway bar, GR78x15 radial whitewall tires, color-keyed slot styled wheels, body color front and rear bumpers, two-tone paint, landau padded vinyl roof, opera quarter windows with accents, dual remote control mirrors painted body color, Barcelona medallion on glove box door and fenders, 24 oz (680 g) carpeting and bumper nerfing strips. The standard roll-down rear quarter windows were converted into fixed "opera windows" with fiberglass covers over the stock openings that were finished with padded vinyl inside and out.

For its final production in 1978, the Barcelona model was also available on the Matador four-door sedan.

Penske prepared factory-backed Matador hardtops and coupes were used in NASCAR stock car racing by Indy winner Mark Donohue and Bobby Allison, and won a number of races. The new coupe replaced the previous "flying brick" two-door hardtop design; Penske was quoted as saying that they did what they could with the old hardtop, and it did better on tracks with more curves and fewer straight ways. Donohue did not survive to drive the new aerodynamically designed fastback coupe, that many believe was aimed at NASCAR racing. The 5 wins for the Matador are:

Winston Western 500 - Riverside - Mark Donohue - January 21, 1973
Los Angeles Times 500 - Ontario - Bobby Allison - November 24, 1974
Winston Western 500 - Riverside - Bobby Allison - January 19, 1975
Rebel 500 - Darlington - Bobby Allison - April 13, 1975
Southern 500 - Darlington - Bobby Allison - September 1, 1975

Bobby Allison also won the non-points race Daytona 125 on February 13, 1975 and finished second in the Daytona 500 3 days later.

While well-restored examples of Matador sedans can still be purchased under $3,000, ads have been published asking over $10,000 for restored coupes. Hemmings Classic Car magazine listed the 1974-78 Matador Coupe as one of their 19 pieces of rolling proof that the old-car hobby need not be expensive and described the Coupé as "possibly one of the most distinctive shapes to come out of the 1970s, and arguably a style pinnacle for the personal luxury movement...", the James Bond movie role, as well as its NASCAR history.

Matador Movie - "What's a Matador?"

AMC GREMLIN/SPIRIT/KAMMBACK

The AMC Gremlin is a subcompact car that was made by the American Motors Corporation (AMC) for nine model years. During its manufacturing run from April 1970 through 1978, a total of 671,475 Gremlins were built in the United States and Canada. The Gremlin was described at its introduction as the first domestic-built American subcompact car. Responding to the introduction of competitors from Ford and Chevrolet, AMC advertised the car in its second model year as "America's first subcompact".The St. Louis-Post Dispatch states that to cite the Gremlin as “America’s first subcompact” is to overlook the Crosley and the Nash Metropolitan.The latter—a subcompact-sized "captive import", American-conceived and American-designed for the American market, and built in the UK with a British engine—has a claim to be "America's first subcompact."^[13]

AMC's designer Richard A. Teague may have come up with up the Gremlin's name. AMC apparently felt confident enough to not worry about the word's negative connotations. Time magazine noted two definitions for "gremlin": Defined by Webster's as "a small gnome held to be responsible for malfunction of equipment." American Motors' definition: "a pal to its friends and an ogre to its enemies." The car was introduced on April Fools' Day 1970, six months ahead of subcompacts from Ford and GM.^[15] It was created to compete with imported cars from Japan and Germany; and although its appearance received some criticism, the Gremlin had an important advantage with its low price. "With AMC's thriftiest six-cylinder engine and base prices below US$2,000, AMC's 'import-fighter' initially sold well: over 26,000 in its abbreviated first season" before the Chevrolet Vega and Ford Pinto were introduced.^[16]

Executives at American Motors knew that Ford and General Motors were to launch subcompact cars for 1971, but did not have the financial resources to respond with an entirely new competing design.^[17]^[18] Chief stylist Richard A. Teague's solution was to truncate the tail of a Javelin (legend has it that Teague sketched the design on a Northwest Orient air sickness bag). The result was the AMX-GT, first shown at the New York International Auto Show in April 1968.^[19] The AMX-GT was never produced (although the "AMX" name was used from 1968 to 1970 on a shortened, two-seat version of the Javelin).

Instead, the new subcompact, designed by future Chief of Design, Bob Nixon, was based on the Hornet, a compact car (based on interior volume) with a wheelbase of 108 inches (2,743 mm). For the Gremlin, the Hornet wheelbase was reduced to 96 inches (2,438 mm) and the overall length cut from 179 to 161 inches (4,500 to 4,100 mm). The Gremlin was AMC's "bold and innovative approach" to preparing for two imminent crises in the American automobile industry: reduced gasoline supplies, and an "alarming increase" in the sale of fuel-efficient imports.^[20]

From the seatbacks forward the Gremlin was essentially a Hornet, but the shortened wheelbase and reduction in overall length made for a minimal rear seat and cramped rear legroom. The cargo area was smaller than that of a Volkswagen Beetle (although folding the rear seat more than doubled the cargo area). The cut-off "Kammback-type" design was the butt of jokes such as "what happened to the rest of your car?" However, it allowed for interior space and was aerodynamically efficient.

The Gremlin was available in two versions: a "plain" two-passenger model with fixed back window, intended as the leading "import-fighter" with a suggested retail price of US$1,879; and a four-seater with flip-up rear window "hatch", at US$1,959. As with the Volkswagen Beetle that it was designed to compete against, the Gremlin's styling made it impossible to confuse it with anything else on the road.^[20]

nside the 1970 AMC Gremlin, the features were conventional. The bench seat could fit three in a pinch. Buckets were optional. The instrument panel was similar to Hornet's but had two dials, one for speedometer, the other for fuel and temperature gauges. (Hornet's had a third housing for an optional clock.)

Teague's upright, station-wagon-type rear design provided ideal space utilization. Four-passenger models offered six cubic feet of luggage space behind the rear seat, 18 cubic feet with the seat folded down. An optional inflatable space-saver spare tire freed up two additional cubic feet of storage. Front-seat room was enormous by small-car standards, especially leg room and interior width since both were the same as in the Hornet. Rear seat space was tight. The rear floor, after all, was where most of the cutting had occurred, which left it suitable only for the young and supple of form. Kids, though, were happy enough back there.

From the time of the first Nash Ramblers, AMC's idea was that small cars should enjoy all the luxury and convenience options usually found only in more expensive cars. Anyone overly enthusiastic with the option sheet could easily end up with a Gremlin much more costly than its modest base price. But that was part of the plan. Optional equipment came with a much higher profit margin, and that was important to AMC. The 1970 AMC Gremlin offered an unusually long option list for the era. Included were a 145-horsepower, 232-cubic inch six ($45.35), automatic transmission ($200.95, column shift only), air conditioning ($379.50), power steering ($95.85), power brakes ($43.30), Twin-Grip differential ($43), luggage rack ($38.85), and wheel discs ($25.25).

The Interior Appointment Package was popular. It included a small under-dash shelf, glovebox door with lock and light, and a cigarette lighter, all for $19.95. The Custom Interior trim package, including carpeting, better door and seat trim, and a custom steering wheel, was $49.95 with bench seat, $89.90 with buckets. Standard tires were 6.00 x 13s, but 6.45 x 14s were only $14.25 extra a set. Bigger B78 x 14s were also available.

A floor-shifted three-speed stick with full synchromesh came at no-charge with the bigger engine but wasn't available with the standard mill. Overdrive wasn't offered.

Most imports could beat the Gremlin's 20-25 mpg. After all, that big engine and 2,635-pound curb weight meant Gremlin's fuel economy, though excellent by most standards, couldn't match the flyweights. At least Gremlin got "the best gas mileage of any production car made in America," as AMC noted. The huge 21-gallon gas tank allowed 500 or more miles between fill-ups. But few import cars could touch Gremlin in performance. Car and Driver recorded a 0-60 mph time of 11.9 seconds with a 232-cubic inch-equipped Gremlin; a fuel-injected Saab 99 sport sedan tested in the same issue turned in a 12.6-second clocking. A VW couldn't even come close.

Legend says it was Teague who came with up the Gremlin's whimsical name. AMC apparently felt confident enough to not worry about the word's negative connotations fagremlin, according to Webster's, is "an imaginary small creature . . . blamed for the faulty operation of airplanes") or cringe at the timing of the car's scheduled announcement date: April Fools' Day, 1970. As a mid-year entry (factory sales literature referred to it as a 19701/2), Gremlin couldn't hope for big sales, but AMC built more than 25,000 first-year models. However, most dealers reported tremendous interest in the car and it's likely a great many more Gremlins could have been sold that first year.

In 1970, the Gremlin debuted with AMC's 199 cu in (3.3 L) I6 (a very sturdy and durable seven main bearing design), which produced 128 hp (95 kW) as standard equipment, with AMC's 232 cu in (3.8 L) I6 – producing 145 hp (108 kW) – as an option. Sales started at a respectable 28,560 units in only five months of production.

In 1971, the "X" appearance/equipment trim package became optional ($300) on the 4-passenger model. It included body side tape stripes, body color front fascia, slotted road wheels with 70-series tires, blackout grille insert, bucket seats, and "X" decals. The 2-passenger Gremlin version soldiered on into its second and final season. The 232 CID I6 that was optional for 1970 became standard, while a new stroked version of the 232, a 258 cu in (4.2 L) I6 became the optional powerplant. Compression ratios dropped from 8.5:1 to 8:1 for 1971, resulting in the 232 cu in (3.8 L) six producing 135 hp (101 kW), while the new 258 cu in (4.2 L) made 150 hp (112 kW). Sales improved for 1971 to 76,908 units.

All Gremlins received a new body-colored front fascia treatment for 1972. There were a host of other changes, not the least of which was an available 304 cu in (5 L) V8 engine. Engine ratings were downgraded to more accurate Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) net hp figures, bringing the 232 cu in (3.8 L) engine to 100 hp (75 kW), the 258 cu in (4.2 L) to 110 hp (82 kW), and the 304 V8 to 150 hp (112 kW). The base two-passenger model was dropped, having sold only 3,017 in 18 months. Gremlins also switched from non-synchro 1st gear manual transmissions to ones with full synchromesh. The Borg-Warner-sourced automatic transmission was replaced for 1972 by the sturdy Chrysler-designed TorqueFlite unit. Other, more minor technical upgrades found their way into the Gremlin in order to make it more reliable and durable. This year AMC would introduce America's first bumper-to-bumper warranty, called the Buyer Protection Plan. AMC hoped these improvements would result in fewer warranty claims, better public relations and improved customer satisfaction and loyalty. 94,808 Gremlins were sold in 1972, a 23% gain over 1971.

For 1973, AMC introduced bumpers able to withstand a 5-mile-per-hour (8 km/h) impact in the front and a 2.5-mile-per-hour (4 km/h) impact in the rear, to meet new U.S. government mandated safety regulations. Gremlins also received the option of a Levi's interior trim package, which included spun nylon upholstery made to look like denim (fire safety regulations prohibited the use of real cotton denim). Details included removable map pockets, burnished copper denim rivets, and red Levi's logo tabs. One notable and widely appreciated change was the increase in legroom in the rear seats. The X package received a new tape-striping pattern that emphasized the Gremlin's rear wheel flares by kicking up over the flare itself. Gremlin sales improved again to 122,844 units, nearly 30% more than 1972. A 1973 Gremlin purchased by Consumer Reports was top-rated in a group of six subcompact models tested for the June issue. That car had relatively few sample defects and proved reliable over a long-term test.

The Arab Oil Embargo of October 1973 came just as the 1974 model year began. AMC improved the Gremlin's back seat. A deeper front fascia made the car appear longer and there were larger front bumpers, with no filler panel between bumper and body). Appearance also changed at the rear with a new federally mandated 5 mph (8 kmh) rear bumper, which was set lower in 1974. The rear fascia was modified slightly to blend with the design changes. The Gremlin X stripe pattern took on a "hockey stick" look for 1974, with the stripes following the window line as it tapered aft, and swept up now to include four new slanted vertical impressions on the wide C-pillar. A new typeface for nameplates was used by AMC for 1974 and the Gremlin was no exception. AMC extended the 1974 model year into November 1974 to delay the need to install catalytic converters required by United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) 2004 regulations starting with 1975 models. In so doing, AMC sold 171,128 1974 Gremlins, an increase of nearly 40% over 1973 and 130% over 1971.

1975 saw fewer changes, as AMC's attention was focused on the midyear debut of the new AMC Pacer. However, minor modifications to the shape of the bumpers were seen, as well as the availability of a catalytic converter and standard electronic ignition. Struggling under stagflation and an inflationary economy, American subcompact sales slumped and AMC was not immune, having only sold 56,011 Gremlins in the (albeit shortened) 1975 model year, a 67% drop.

Changes were greater for 1976. The front fascia was revised again for oval, in place of the previous circular, headlight bezels. The grille shape became a stretched hexagon and included in its insert two opposing loops stacked atop each other and housing new rounded parking/turn signal lights. Front fenders were also modified to be taller, with a slight finned effect. A new "Custom" trim line debuted, featuring an striped interior trim called "Potomac", as well as a spare tire cover and other minor details. The A models made do with another new striping scheme, this time with the hockey stick-style stripe of the previous year adding a secondary extension that ran from the door-handle straight back. The X package was now available only on Custom models. Due to flagging sales, the 304 V8 engine option (now downgraded to 120 hp (89 kW)) was cancelled at midyear, after only 826 installations. (A total of 40,994 Gremlins were equipped with the V8 from 1972 to 1976.) A 4-speed manual transmission was made available at midyear. However, the changes were not enough to revive sales, which tapered slightly to 52,941 - a decline of 5.5%.

Changes for 1977 included redesigned sheet metal for the first time in the Gremlin's now 8-year history: revised hood, shorter front fenders, new bumpers, taller glass tailgate, enlarged taillights, and rear license plate now covering the fuel filler. The front fascia was revised, with a crosshatch grille insert. Parking lights reverted to rectangular, and headlights were now recessed into square bezels with rounded corners. The new hood had a small "power bulge" at the front. The X package returned again, with yet another new striping pattern that ran straight back from the front fenders and crested upward over the rear wheels. Front disc brakes became standard. This was also the first year that AMC offered a four-cylinder engine: a Volkswagen/Audi 2.0 L (~122 cu in) Straight-4, its introduction gave the Gremlin one of the widest ranges of engine size of all time,^{[citation
needed]} from 122 CID to 304 CID (2.0 L to 5.0 L). The new engine also saw service in the little Porsche 924 (but with Bosch fuel injection - the Gremlin's version had a carburetor). It gave better fuel economy but less power than the standard six-cylinder engines. These were carried over from 1976, with a power boost from updated cylinder heads. The expense of acquiring the rights to the new 122 CID (2.0 L) engine meant that AMC could not afford to make it standard equipment in the base model, reserving it instead for the Custom version. The changes did not result in improved sales: AMC moved only 46,171 Gremlins for 1977, a mere 7,558 of which carried the new 122 CID (2.0 L) engine. Sales had dropped 13%.

In its final year of 1978, the Gremlin received a number of changes, but customers on a tighter budget could still get a standard six-cylinder base model Gremlin for under US$3,400.^[21] The biggest was inside: a revised instrument panel borrowed from the then-new 1978 Concord. The dashboard featured high-level ventilation, HVAC and radio switchgear within easier grasp, as well as a full-width flat top. The X's tape striping pattern was yet again revised to mirror that of the 1978 Concord Sport package design, with the stripe at the lower body side and curving over the wheel lip.

At mid-season, a "GT" package became available with a front spoiler and flared wheel openings as on the 1978 AMX. The GT added an aluminum overlay to the instrument panel, was powered by the 258 CID (4.2 L) I6 as standard, and had its own stripe scheme: a wide tape stripe, outlined by a narrow one, ran back from the front fenders and widened aft of the rear quarter windows. The package also included body-color fender flares and front air dam, as well as body-color bumpers, all of which combined to give the GT a modern, aggressive look, but fewer than 3,000 Gremlin GTs were built.^[21]

The Gremlin's body shape had not changed appreciably in its nine years of production, and more advanced subcompacts, lighter in weight, with more doors, better interiors and front-wheel drive, had appeared on the market. This probably explains the 52% drop in sales for the Gremlin's final year, bringing the 1978 total to 22,104 units.

During its era, the AMC Gremlin's performance was above subcompact car levels. A road test by Motor Trend magazine recorded a zero to 60 mph (0 to 97 km/h) acceleration time of 12.6 seconds with the 232 cu in (3.8 L) engine. Both the Ford Pinto and the VW Beetle were in the 18 second range. Fuel economy was reasonably good at 28 mpg_-US (8.4 L/100 km; 34 mpg_-imp) to 30 mpg_-US (7.8 L/100 km; 36 mpg_-imp) with the small six, but it was not competitive with the 35-plus mpg economy of the VW Beetle.^[22]

The car's front-heaviness was generally thought to compromise the handling, although Mechanix Illustrated's Tom McCahill found it "fast and easy", and the ride was comparatively stiff because of the shortened rear springs. On the other hand, he showed that acceleration and top speed were better than other subcompacts of the era. McCahill ran the 232-engined Gremlin with automatic transmission from zero to 60 mph (0 to 97 km/h) in 11.9 seconds and saw 100 miles per hour (161 km/h) on the Daytona Speedway straightaway. He summarized: "on a dollar for dollar basis, I rate the Gremlin the best American buy of the year".

Car and Driver magazine recorded a 0-60 mph time of 11.9 seconds with a Gremlin powered by the 232 cubic inch engine, almost a second faster than a fuel-injected Saab 99 sport sedan tested in the same issue^[14] (at 106.8 cubic inches, the Saab's four-cylinder engine was less than half the capacity of the Gremlin's six-cylinder, yet the Saab's suggested list price was over US$3,000, compared to the Gremlin's $1,959.)^[23]

The V8 cut the Gremlin's zero to 60 time to 8.5 seconds, and Hemmings reports that a V8 Gremlin can more than hold its own against other small-bore V8-engined cars of the 1970s.^[24]

The Gremlin's engines were more powerful than any fielded by its main domestic competition. Its body structure was more sound. Its engines were smoother and more reliable, and the car had a cleaner recall record. The Gremlin's chief import rival, the Volkswagen Beetle, did not handle as well, and got similar gas mileage from about 40% of the Gremlin's horsepower, but it was packaged marginally better (both cars were the same overall size). Gremlin designer Richard Teague commented in Motor Trend that to compare the Beetle (whose basic design originated in the late 1930s) to the Gremlin in profile and body design was like "comparing a Ford GT40 to the Hindenburg".

In Hemmings, the specialist old-car publication, a Gremlin enthusiast describes the X-package model he restored to stock specification as having "a very stiff ride ... [and] if you try to take a sharp curve at high speed, the rear end will definitely want to get light with you. It has manual brakes, and you really have to push them hard in a quick stop. If you try to do several of them, the brakes will definitely fade on you. [With] power steering ... it doesn't require much effort at all, regardless of your speed, or even if you're standing still. Without power steering, it's a real bear because of all that extra weight on the front."^[24]

Due to their inherent inexpensiveness, strength and the ease with which they could be modified for higher performance, many AMC Gremlins were used in drag racing. Some still appear in competitions: for example, at the 2006 World Power Wheelstanding Championships (not a race event, but a "wheelie" contest), Brian Ambrosini's specially modified 1974 Gremlin took second place.

Vehiculos Automotores Mexicanos (VAM) manufactured Gremlins in Mexico under license from AMC. The cars came with different trim, interiors, and model names than the equivalent AMC-made models. However, all engines built by VAM were of AMC design incorporating appropriate changes to deal with lower octane gasoline and the higher altitudes in Mexico. This included a unique 282 cu in (4.6 L) version of AMC's straight-6 engine. The Mexican affiliate was so fond of the Gremlin that they continued to use the name for several more years after it faded in the U.S. — "they knew a good thing when they saw it".^[21]

The Gremlin proved a popular test-bed for experiments with alternative fuels. Many universities converted them to run on natural gas, hydrogen, and electric power. For example, in 1972 University of California, Los Angeles researchers won a nationwide Urban Vehicle Design Competition when it modified an AMC Gremlin to run on hydrogen and the lessons learned are still useful today.^[26] Engineers at Coleman Products Corporation in Coleman, Wisconsin created a non-drivable plexiglas Gremlin as a demonstrator of the placement and function of electrical wiring harnesses.^[27]

A total of 671,475 Gremlins were sold in the United States and Canada, making it the most popular single generation body style/chassis produced by AMC (other models, such as the Rambler and even Hornet, have higher production numbers, but consisted of more than one chassis design and body style in the case of the Rambler, multiple body styles for the Hornet).

American Motors launched the Gremlin into the U.S. market that was dominated by import cars. Its smooth ride, solid build quality, and unique (to some controversial) styling set it apart from the competition and it is remembered in automotive history as little piece of America that refused to back down.^[28] Like its chief competitor, the VW Beetle, the Gremlin soon acquired a loyal base of owners when new as a domestic alternative to the import models and when it began to appear on used-car lots, it was an excellent car for the first-time buyer on a tight budget.^[20]

Time Magazine rated the Gremlin as one of "The 50 Worst Cars of All Time", describing it as an AMC Hornet with the rear end whacked off, and criticizing its exterior proportions, with a long low snout, long front overhang and a truncated tail, "like the tail snapped off a salamander" Scarcity, and the fact that it is a 1970s car, makes the Gremlin collectible,^[30]^[31] and it has a following among old car hobbyists and collectors of historic vehicles. In some cases, the Gremlin enjoys "a cult-like following in today’s collectible car market.^[10] According to Business Week 1970s cars such as the Gremlin are increasingly attractive to today’s buyers, and an insurance provider for collector-car owners reports that values are rising.^[32]^[33]

In light of rising gasoline prices, the Gremlin offers a relatively economical alternative to muscle cars and the more massive American cars of its era — especially for buyers leaning toward the eccentric.^[20] AMC said the Gremlin got "the best gas mileage of any production car made in America," and its 21-US-gallon (79 L; 17 imp gal) gas tank allowed 500 miles (805 km) or more between fill-ups. Original Gremlins with the V8 engine, X package models, Levi's trim, and also the 1978 GT versions, are the most sought-after and command higher prices.^[34] However it has been said that scarcity makes any Gremlin in good condition worth preserving as a unique piece of automotive history.

In the opinion of some, the Gremlin is a sought-after car for restoring and has perhaps "finally caught the imagination of what some may consider a car ahead of it's [sic] time" as well as potentially "the silent sleeper of collectible cars" However, even though Gremlins share numerous parts and components with other AMC models,^[10] finding parts for a restoration project can be difficult. (This is exacerbated by the fact that many Gremlins were chopped up during the late-1970s and the 1980s to make dirt-track racers.)^[24] The body of choice on the dirt circuit was the Gremlin and AMC Eagle. The subcompact bodies fit Modified chassis and of special interest was the Gremlin's slab top and sides with a contour that was easy to duplicate in sheet metal.

Hemmings reports that an AMC enthusiast had to buy eight Gremlin parts cars before he could begin restoring his 1974 Gremlin X to stock. He estimated that he invested between $10,000 and $15,000, and about 2,000 hours of labor, in the finished car. One AMC expert, who owns thirteen Gremlins, estimates that 90% of the surviving cars are modified because parts are so hard to find. Replacement panels are scarce, as are parts the Gremlin shares with other AMC models, e.g. body parts and exterior moldings. Parts for the interior are very scarce. Drivetrain components are easier to find, and performance parts are relatively plentiful, because many Jeeps had the 304 CID engine as an option.^[24]

There are numerous active AMC car clubs to assist Gremlin owners.

In 1979, the Gremlin was restyled with a sloping hatchback and renamed the "AMC Spirit". The original "Kammback" body style continued in production until 1983 as the Spirit Sedan with larger rear side windows. The basic design was also used for the small AMC Eagle Kammback from 1981 to 1983. The 1979 Spirit continued where the aging 1970-1978 Gremlin left off, but added fresh styling and a sporty liftback model to the existing sedan body style. The change was described as AMC having the "cleverest engineers in Detroit" cementing their reputation of "getting $200 worth of looks for $100" by an automotive writer who took a test drive in a new AMC Spirit.^[1]

Riding the Gremlin's 96-inch (2,438 mm) wheelbase, the changeover from Gremlin to Spirit sedan included larger rear quarter windows whose trailing edges now paralleled the slope of the Kammback tail. This effect drastically improved outward visibility, especially from the backseat, and gave the car a more modern, if less distinctive look. At the front, a new combination of grille, headlights, and parking lights was surrounded by a slim chrome loop effect. Quad rectangular headlamps were side-by-side and sat atop slim, horizontal amber rectangular parking lights. A new rectangular grille with widely-spaced horizontal bars revealed the AMC logo set in a circle in the grille center. New aluminum bumpers with black end caps debuted to effect lighter weight and a more crisp appearance in vogue with the times. At the side, the Spirit sedan added red circular rear marker lights that featured the AMC logo outline in foil "chrome" in its center. The B-pillar was now covered by a blackout beauty panel that featured vertical ribbing. Many of the suspension upgrades seen on the 1978 Concord were transferred to the Spirit to give it a more civilized driving experience. New door trim panels were introduced: along with base, DL, and leather-lined Limited trim lines that heaped more equipment and features into AMC's subcompact than ever before. The 1978 Gremlin instrument panel was carried over, but with a wood grain overlay seen on DL and Limited models. In a comparison to its competition, "[w]hat is special about the Spirit is the luxury finish that upgrades the interior ... with the look of a high-priced car."

The new liftback model, however, was the center of attention for 1979. The slick new hatchback coupe had a particularly graceful superstructure for such a short car. Riding the same wheelbase as the sedan model, the liftback was identical to the sedan from the doors forward, but instead of a chopped Kammback tail, it featured a sloping fastback look. Quarter windows stretched back to meet slim C-pillars, and kicked up slightly from the belt line at the rear. The liftback featured a proper rear hatch "door", with a large glass window inset. The rear fascia had a recessed look, with wide rectangular taillights that featured loop-type foil chrome overlays. The rear license plate stood upright and hid the fuel filler cap behind it. The sloping roof, while attractive and effective in transforming the familiar Gremlin shape into something new, fresh, and sporty, sacrificed some headroom in the car's already vestigial rear compartment. In a historical review of the new model, Car Craft magazine wrote "[a]esthetically, the Spirit was probably the most contemporary-looking car to roll out of Kenosha since those early AMXs."^[4] A "GT" option package with aluminum wheels, blackout trim, an optional rear spoiler, and other sporty features that offered AMC to have a competitor in design, style, price, size, and performance to Ford's new-for-1979 Fox-based Mustang.

The standard engine on both models was AMC's trusty 3.8 L inline-6, with the thrifty and advanced 2.0 L I4, and 4.2 L I6 optional, while the 5.0 L V8 was offered as an option only on the liftback. 1979 would mark a (one-year) reprisal for 5.0 L V8 availability in the short 96-inch (2,438 mm) wheelbase AMC chassis. The last time the two were available together was in the 1976 Gremlin. The four, sixes, and V8 could be mated to either a standard 4-speed manual transmission or an optional 3-speed automatic with either floor or column shift, depending on trim and options. A 3-speed manual transmission was only available as a delete option on the sixes.

The AMX model was transferred from the Concord hatchback to the Spirit liftback body for 1979 and came with either the 4.2 L I6 or 5.0 L V8. The AMX featured a flush blackout grille with an AMX emblem its lower driver's side corner, fiberglass wheel flares, rear spoiler, 14x7 "Turbocast II" aluminum wheels, blackout trim, "GT rally-tuned" suspension, floor shift transmission, an optional hood decal, and other sporty touches.

Minor changes greeted the Spirit line for 1980. The 2.0 L VW/Audi-sourced I4 was replaced by a GM-sourced 2.5 L Iron Duke I4. American Motors had incurred high costs and slow sales from its deal with VW/Audi and their 2.0 L I4. On the other hand, the Iron Duke afforded slightly more power at a lower price to AMC, allowing them to make it the Spirit's standard engine, rather than optional, as the 2.0 L was from 1977-79.

The 3.8 L I6 was dropped from the lineup, as was the 5.0 L V8, leaving the 4.2 L I6 as the only engine option, and the only engine available in the AMX. No major exterior changes were seen, except on the AMX, as its grille emblem moved to the center.

All AMCs, including the Spirit, received a new rust-proofing process called Ziebart Factory Rust Protection. This comprehensive process included aluminized trim screws, plastic inner fender liners, galvanized steel in every exterior body panel, and a deep-dip (up to the window line) bath in epoxy-based primer. AMC backed up its new rust protection program by adding a 5-year "No Rust Thru" component to its successful Buyer Protection Plan.

Even fewer changes were made to the 1981 Spirit line. A new crosshatch grille with a single crosshair element completed the changes at the front of the Spirit. New optional "Noryl" wheelcovers were added. The leather-clad Limited models were canceled, leaving the DL as the top-rung model. The liftback still featured a GT package, available on both base and DL trims, with both engines. The AMX did not return for 1981. All AMCs were marketed under a new "Tough Americans" ad campaign, which sought to highlight the warranty and rustproofing measures that AMC took with their cars.

1981 AMC EPA fuel economy figures for the 49 states were 23 mpg city and 33 mpg highway for the 4-cylinder 4-speed, 20 mpg city and 26 mpg highway for the 4-cylinder automatic, 19 mpg city and 28 mpg highway for the 6-cylinder 4-speed, and 19 mpg city and 26 mpg highway for the 6-cylinder automatic.

There were 4 kinds of wheel treatments this year, they were the "Custom Wheel Cover", "Full Styled wheel cover (noryl) which was standard on the Spirit DL, the "Spoke Styled Wheels" which were standard on the Spirit G.T. and the "Turbocast II Aluminum wheels which were optional on all models. Fifteen exterior paint colors were available in 1981. They were Olympic White, Classic Black, Quick Siver Metallic, Steel Gray Met, Med. Blue Met, Moonlight Blue, Autumn Gold, Sherwood Green Met, Cameo Tan, Copper Brown Met, Med. Brown Met, Dark Brown Met, Oriental Red, Vintage Red Met, and Deep Maroon Met. Interiors were available in Deluxe Grain vinyl in black, blue, beige, and nutmeg. Coventry Check fabric was available in black, blue, beige, and nutmeg.

For 1981, AMC introduced the 4-wheel drive Eagle models (SX/4 liftback and Kammback sedan) based on both Spirit body styles. These were the first true SUV "crossover" vehicles.

Changes to the Spirit for 1982 were mostly mechanical. A new 5-speed manual transmission was offered as an option, and new low-drag front disc brakes were standard. Together, they allowed the 2.5 L Spirit to achieve 37 mpg_-US (6.4 L/100 km; 44 mpg_-imp) on the highway, according to 1982 EPA estimates. For those who ordered automatics, the Chrysler sourced three-speed TorqueFlite ratios were more widely spaced to afford even automatic-equipped cars better mileage.

The Spirit's final year was more notable by what was missing from the line. The Spirit sedan, having sold poorly due to familiar styling and little marketing, was pruned from the line. So were the 2.5 L I4 and the base model liftback, making all 1983 Spirits 4.2 L-equipped liftbacks in either DL or new GT trim. The GT package became a full-fledged model separate from the DL for the Spirit's swan song. Advertisements stressed the higher level of standard equipment in both Spirit DL and Spirit GT, which sold for US$5,995 and US$6,495, respectively. The Spirit GT version was compared to the liftback version of Ford's Mustang.

More notably, for 1983, AMC introduced the new Renault Alliance, which was a much more modern, space-efficient, fuel-efficient, front-wheel-drive subcompact car than the rear-drive Spirit was, with its now 14 season-old platform. Next to the new 1983 Alliance, the Spirit seemed unnecessary, and after sales slowed to a trickle by the end of 1983, it was quietly canceled as AMC released the Alliance-based Encore hatchbacks for 1984.

An AMX version of the Spirit liftback was offered for 1979 and 1980.

It featured special color-matched fender flares and front air dam, 'Rally-Tuned' suspension with 1.06-inch (27 mm) front and 0.75-inch (19 mm) rear sway bars, high-effort power steering gears, adjustable Gabriel (brand name) 'Strider' shock absorbers, heavy-duty semi-metallic 10.8-inch (274 mm) front disk brakes with ribbed 10x1.2-inch (254x30.5 mm) rear drum brakes, unique AMX grille, 'Turbocast II' 14x7 inch aluminum rims with ER60x14 Goodyear 'Flexten' GT radial RWL (raised white letter) tires, rear spoiler, special striping package, hood and door decals, console shifted automatic or manual transmission with 'Rallye Gauge' package (total of eight dials including an intake-manifold vacuum gauge), as well as simulated aluminum dash overlays with AMX badge on the glove compartment door.

Changes in standard AMX equipment for 1980 were black flares and air dam, standard 14x6 styled road wheels with the aluminum rims optional , and no simulated aluminum dash overlays. See: 1979 and 1980 compared and 1980 Data Book

The biggest powerplant on the 1979 AMX was AMC's 304 cu in (5 L) V8 capable of reaching 0 to 60 mph in 13.4 seconds. For 1980, the only engine was the 258 cu in (4.2 L) I6. Still, it was the last car to wear the AMX name and has achieved popularity with AMC enthusiasts.

In October 1979, the B.F. Goodrich tire company sponsored a pair of AMXs in the annual FIA Group One twenty-four hour race (for mildly modified production cars) held at Germany's legendary Nürburgring track.^[5] (The 1979 304 cu in (5 L) V8-powered Spirit AMX was already homologated for European FIA Group One Touring Car races.)

The cars were the first-ever American entries in this grueling race (the Nürburgring is a 14.1-mile (22.7 km) circuit with 176 turns). They would compete against smaller-engined but more agile BMWs, Fords, Opels, VW Golfs, Renault 5s and Audis.

Drivers Amos Johnson and his partner Dennis Shaw were the team principals in the North Carolina-based "Team Highball." Supporting drivers were factory Mazda driver Jim Downing (who would later co-develop the HANS device), actor James Brolin, Lyn St. James and automotive journalist Gary Witzenberg. Two street-stock cars (both with AMC 5.0 L V8 and four-speed transmission) were supplied to "Team Highball" for Group One race modifications less than three weeks before shipment to Europe. The #1 Johnson/Shaw/Brolin car was given the faster set-up, with the objective of winning the race.^[5]

With very little prior experience of the track, and race practice cut short by fog, the team qualified the cars 20th and 21st overall.

In the race the #1 car suffered broken front shock-absorbers and a slipping clutch, and the engine burned oil. Witzenberg reported the brakes and both front shocks "all but gone" in #2 - pumping the brakes dragged the front spoiler, but had little effect on speed. And since the AMXs were "rather crude" compared with the smaller, lighter cars they were racing against, they lost time in the turns. Nevertheless Witzenburg said the cars "ran great", especially on the straights where they reached about 140 mph.

They finished first and second in class, 25th and 43rd overall out of a field of 120.^[6] They were also the fastest entrants using street tires - BFG T/A radials.

The preparation of the cars and the team's experience of the race itself were covered by a period documentary film, The Ultimate Challenge.

X Turbo PPG pace car

[edit] Turbo pace car

An AMX Turbo Pace car was built to be one of four official safety cars in the PPG IndyCar World Series for the 1981 auto-racing season. Using the Spirit liftback body, the pace car was designed by Richard A. Teague, AMC's Vice President of Automotive Design. The car was constructed by Autodynamics of Troy, Michigan under contract from PPG Industries. The turbo-charged and fuel-injected 258 cu in (4.2 L) I6 was built by Turbo-Systems Inc. to produce 450 bhp (336 kW). The car is equipped with Goodyear Eagle GT low profile 245x50x16 tires on 16x8 "Gotti" aluminum alloy wheels. ^[7]

This car was the final chapter in the AMC AMX story. The PPG AMX is currently in a private collection in Florida and appears at automobile shows.

[edit] Performance

1979 AMC Spirit pro drag car

Building on the AMC Gremlin's ease with which they could be modified for higher performance, as well as their inherent inexpensiveness and strength, AMC Spirits were used in drag racing. According to Hot Rod magazine, "these little cars are very cool, and while they're not traditional muscle cars, they're plenty strong in terms of performance."^[8] Using mostly AMC hardware, the AMC Spirit can perform exceptionally well as a street car and in multiple racing arenas (including quarter-mile e.t. of 12.8 at 110 mph), with the finished vehicle costing only about $10,000.^[4] Some Spirits have been fitted with 360 cu in (5.9 L) AMC V8 engines and run the quarter-mile drag strip on an 11.88 dial.^[9] AMC Spirits in the Factory Street class have run e.t. of 10.62 at 126.27 mph.^[10] AMC Spirits have also been heavily modified for pro class racing.

[edit] Experimental Spirits

The AMC Spirit served as a test vehicle for alternative engine and fuel experiments. These included the Mod 1 Stirling engine powered AMC Spirit engineering test vehicle built by Mechanical Technology Inc. to develop and demonstrate practical alternatives.^[11]

[edit] VAM models

1980 VAM "Gremlin" in Mexico

Mexican government-owned automaker Vehiculos Automotores Mexicanos (VAM) assembled sedan and liftback Spirits under license with AMC. To meet government regulations, VAM vehicles had to have at least 50% locally sourced parts. Mexican built "AMC's" came with different exterior and interior trim, as well as model names than their counterparts in the United States and Canada. For example, Spirit 2-door sedans were called "Rallys", which was the name used in Mexico for AMC Gremlins in the rest of North America. The VAM Rally liftback models came in AMX, GT, and SST versions.

A unique to Mexico was the vehicle called the VAM Lerma, which was based on the Concord's 4-door chassis with the Spirit's front and rear liftback body parts and unique rear quarter panels. All VAM engines were of AMC design, but built in at the Hidalgo engine assembly plant. They featured modifications to deal with low octane fuel and high altitudes. These included different head designs and exhaust porting. An indigenous VAM engine was the 282 cu in (4.6 L) version of the AMC Straight-6 engine with an enlarged bore and wider wider dished pistons (3.909" bore, 3.894" stroke).

[edit] Dodge Spirit

The Spirit model name was used by Chrysler Corporation that took over AMC in 1987, for a four-door sedan called the Dodge Spirit from 1989 to 1995.

MC PACER

The AMC Pacer is a two-door compact automobile produced in the United States by the American Motors Corporation between 1975 and 1980. Its initial design idea was started in 1971. The car's unusual rounded shape with massive glass area greatly contrasted with the mostly boxy, slab-sided models of the era. The Pacer's "jellybean" body style is a readily recognized icon of the 1970s.

AMC's chief stylist Richard A. Teague began work on the Pacer in 1971, anticipating an increase in demand for smaller vehicles through the decade.

Car and Driver magazine noted that "AMC said it was the first car designed from the inside out. Four passengers were positioned with reasonable clearances and then the rest of the car was built around them as compactly as possible." Designed to appear futuristic, the shape was highly rounded with a huge glass area, and was very unusual for its time. Road & Track magazine described it as "fresh, bold and functional-looking". Development was under Product Group Vice President Gerald C. Meyers, whose goal was to develop a car that was truly unique: "...everything that we do must distinguish itself as being importantly different than what can be expected from the competition..."^[3]

Unique for a comparatively small car, the Pacer was as wide as a full-size American car of the era. Contrary to myth, it was not widened six inches (152.4 mm) to make room for the rear-wheel drive configuration. According to an AMC market study from the early 1970s, front-wheel drive was never considered,^{[citation
needed]} although the editor of Road & Track asserted that front-wheel drive, as well as a transverse mid-engined configuration, were among "various mechanical layouts...tossed around by the idea people at AMC", adding that "it's unlikely they ever had much hope of being able to produce anything other than their traditional front engine and rear drive, using components already in production."^[4] A rear-engined layout was also explored. 1975 AMC advertising literature proclaimed it as "the first wide small car".

The width was dictated partly by marketing strategy—U.S. drivers were accustomed to large vehicles, and the Pacer's occupants had the impression of being in a larger car—and partly by the fact that AMC's assembly lines were already set up for full-size cars. Also unique at the time, the passenger door was four inches (101 mm) longer than the driver's. This made passenger loading easier, particularly from the rear seats; and they would also tend to use the safer curb side in countries that drive on the right. Ford used this design element in the 1990s Ford Windstar minivan. Teague's low-drag design, which predated the fuel crisis and the flood of small foreign imports into the American market, was highly innovative. Its drag coefficient of 0.43 was remarkably low for that time. Teague even eliminated rain gutters, smoothly blending the tops of the doors into the roof—an aerodynamic detail which, although criticized at the time for allowing rain onto the front seat, has become the norm in today's designs.

The Pacer was also among the first production cars in the U.S. to feature rack-and-pinion steering. The body was designed with the aim that structural lines protected it from hit damages, AMC engineers claimed that they succeeded in more than 50% of the car surface.

In the mid-1970s the U.S. government mandated major safety improvements for the 1980 model year, to include 50-mile-per-hour (80 km/h) front-end crash testing, 25-mile-per-hour (40 km/h) side crash testing and 30-mile-per-hour (48 km/h) rollover testing, as well as installation of bumpers to resist 5-mile-per-hour (8 km/h) impact at the front and 10-mile-per-hour (16 km/h) at the rear. The Pacer was designed to these specifications, and also had laminated safety glass in the windshield.

1975 AMC Pacer base model

General Motors, Ford, and Chrysler persuaded the government that it was not financially viable to modify existing production cars to comply with the new regulations, and that instead each company would be put to the enormous expense of producing new, safety-compliant vehicles. Accordingly the government requirements were reduced, which led to the deletion of several safety features from the production Pacer—for example the roll bar over the passenger compartment, and the bump in the roof that accommodated it. The Pacer's remaining safety features were not strongly advertised, and seldom influenced a potential customer's purchasing decision. The car's extra weight—due in part to the safety equipment and the abundance of heavy glass—hurt fuel economy: production models tested by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) gave 16 miles per US gallon (15 L/100 km; 19 mpg_-imp) in the city, but 26 miles per US gallon (9.0 L/100 km; 31 mpg_-imp) or better on the highway (depending on driving habits and transmission), thanks to aerodynamic efficiency.

Originally the car was designed for a Wankel rotary engine. In 1973, AMC signed a licensing agreement with Curtiss-Wright to build Wankels for cars and Jeep-type vehicles. (The agreement also permitted Curtiss-Wright to sell rotaries elsewhere.)^[5] Later, AMC decided instead to purchase the engines from General Motors (GM), who were developing them for use in their own cars. However, GM canceled development in 1974 for reasons that included durability issues, the fuel crisis, tooling costs (for the engines and also for a new product line designed around the rotary's ultra-compact dimensions) and the upcoming (late 1970s) U.S. emissions legislation. It was also thought that the high-revving Wankel would not suit Americans accustomed to low revs and high torque.

General Motors's change of plans left the Pacer without an engine. American Motors took a calculated risk and introduced the new model.^[6] The company's overcommitment to the project resulted in entrapment with so much money and effort in the car's design.^[6] Engineers hastily reconfigured it to accept their existing straight-six engine. This involved a complete redesign of drivetrain and firewall to keep the longer engine within the body dimensions designed for the Wankel, but allowed the Pacer to share many mechanical components with other AMC models.

The "outside of the box" thinking incorporated by AMC in the Pacer as the first "wide, small car" attempted to capture a revolutionary change in marketplace.^[7] However, a radical departure from what was accepted by consumers as "good styling" was a risky strategy.^[8] Only the largest firms can stick with a radical element until it "grows", and the automaker’s dominance in the marketplace may eventually establish it as a standard feature.^[8] However, the styling research axiom no longer applied by the late 1970s that if a car with some controversial styling was liked by at least half of the potential market segment; then chances were good that this feature was a differential advantage for the manufacturer.^[8] The AMC Pacer incorporated many controversial styling and design innovations led to its market failure after five model years.^[8] American Motors created the Pacer by identifying emerging trends and design technologies, but it faced a small window of opportunity since a product that comes out either too early or too late can fail even if the opportunity was there initially.^[9] A further complication was the purchasing dynamics and the Pacer's design was focused on maximizing the internal sense of space, while the market focused on external dimensions. Many of the attributes the Pacer incorporated became the goal of all manufacturers in the two decades that followed.^[9]

With an uncommonly wide and short body for a small car, the Pacer’s design is still considered controversial while its powerplants did not contribute to fuel economy. Nevertheless, “the foresight by Teague and AMC was correct” with approaches to meet the evolving U.S. government regulations covering automobiles (such as the Highway Safety Act of 1970 and the new National Highway Traffic Safety Administration).^[10]

[edit] Production

1978 AMC Pacer station wagon.

Wagon looks more conventional than hatchback

Introduced in showrooms on February 28, 1975, the Pacer was designed to attract buyers of traditional large cars to a smaller package during a time when gasoline prices were projected to rise dramatically.^[11] In its first year of production, the Pacer sold well, with 145,528 units. Some reviewers referred to it as a "fishbowl on wheels" or a "jellybean in suspenders" because of its unconventional styling, while some described it as a "cute" car. There was little competition from other American manufacturers, most of whom had been blindsided by the oil crisis. The increased demand for compact, economy vehicles was growing rapidly. However, Pacer sales fell after the first two years, and it was available through the 1980 model year. Similar to its mid-year introduction, on December 3, 1979, production of the Pacer ended at the Kenosha, Wisconsin assembly plant where it had begun five years earlier.^[12] A total of 280,000 cars were built. Increasing competition from the Big Three U.S. automakers and the rapid consumer shift to imported cars during the late 1970s are cited as the reasons for this outcome.

The Pacer's unconventional styling was commonly cited in its lack of success. Other concerns included a lack of cargo space when carrying a full load of passengers (because of its short wheelbase). Cargo space could be increased to 29.5 cubic feet (0.84 m³) by folding down the back of the rear seat to form a flat floor. Drivers also cited a lack of power. The Pacer was heavy; Car & Driver wrote, "American Motors had already quoted a curb weight of 2990 lb. for the basic Pacer when we first wrote about the car, and that already seemed quite heavy; but when we weighed the test car (whose air conditioning, automatic transmission, power steering and so forth would not account for the full difference) it registered an astounding 3425 lb."^[13], and the standard 232 cu in (3.8 L) I6, with a single-barrel carburetor and optimized for low emissions (all vehicles at the time carried emissions-reducing devices); was relatively low-powered ("The Pacer comes with either of two AMC inline six-cylinder engines, both producing 100 bhp, but the larger 258-cu-in. unit delivering better mid-range torque"^[13]). In 1976, a "High Output" version of the 258 cu in (4.2 L) engine was offered, which helped performance at the cost of higher fuel consumption. By the time a 304 cu in (5 L) V8 was offered in 1978, the company had introduced a successful line of "luxury-compact" models (the AMC Concord). Additionally, gasoline prices remained high, limiting demand for V8-powered vehicles.

For increased cargo capacity, a station wagon body style was offered from 1977. The wagon version was only five inches longer (127 mm) and weighed only 76 pounds (34 kg) more than the coupe. It was also a less unusual-looking design with a squared-off back and straight, almost upright, rear side windows. Although front vent windows were optional on all Pacers, the wagon's rear side glass featured vent windows as standard. The broad and rear liftgate opened to a wide, flat cargo area with 47.8 cubic feet (1.35 m³) of space, significantly easing the task of loading cargo. The rear seat also folded flat to form a continuation of the cargo floor. Some wagon models featured simulated wood-grain trim on the lower body sides and the liftgate.

[edit] Model designations

1979 AMC Pacer D/L

During the Pacer's production and marketing, the car went from initially being promoted as an economy car, to becoming a small luxury car. The following information details some of the highlights. The "X" Package: A "sporty" edition Pacer. The Pacer X was available from 1975-1978 on the coupe version of the car. The title changed to "Sport" in 1978 and was eliminated after that. The trim package consisted of vinyl bucket seats, sports steering wheel, custom trim, as well as a floor mounted gear shift and front sway bar. On the outside it received exterior chrome features, styled road wheels, and "Pacer X" decals on the doors and other package identification.

The "D/L" Package: A more upscale edition of Pacer, the D/L was available for the entire run of the car becoming the "base" model in 1978. This package was more "luxurious" including, originally, a "Navajo-design" seating fabric and a woodgrain instrument panel as well as a few interior features that were optional without it. The exterior received additional chrome accents, different wheelcovers, and identification badging.

The "Limited": Available in 1979-1980, the Limited model was an elegant farewell for Pacer. Inside, leather seating, extra sound proofing, and deeper-pile carpet (18-oz. vs. the standard 12-oz) was standard, as were many amenities that would have been options: AM radio, power door locks, power windows, and tilt steering wheel, to name a few. The exterior offered many chrome accents, styled road wheels, and exterior "Limited" identification badging.

The "Sundowner": In 1975 only, a Sundowner Pacer was available through AMC dealers in California. This marketing promotion consited of the basic Pacer with a $3,599 suggested retail price. This package included options listing for $300 at no extra cost.^[14] In addition to the mandatory California engine emissions controls and state-required bumper guards, the Sundowner package included a "custom interior" featuring Basketry Weave fabric upholstery with coordinated trim on the door panels, remote control exterior mirror, rear window washer and wiper, styled road wheels with white wall tires, and a roof rack.^[15]

The "Levi's" Package: Attempting to capitalize on the popularity of the Levi's Gremlin and Hornet, AMC introduced a Levi's Pacer for 1977. This option added blue denim-like upholstery and door panel trim, with small "Levi's" tags on both front seats. Missing were the traditional copper buttons found on the other AMC Levi's seating. The package also included a "Levi's" logo sticker for each front fender. It could be combined with the Pacer "X" package. Not well promoted, the Levi's Pacer did not sell in large numbers and was gone for the 1978 model year.

Carl Green Enterprises (CGE) Pacers: Numerous Pacers were modified by Carl Green, automobile designer. These cars included 401 cu in (6.6 L) AMC V8 engines, as well as flares, air dams, and wings.^[16] The custom cars cars appeared in magazines such as Hot Rod,Popular Hot Rodding, and Car & Driver. Carl Green also built two AMC Pacer pace cars for B.F. Goodrich to campaign in the International Motor Sports Association circuit, as well as provided body kits for Amos Johnson's Team Highball racecars.^[17]

All Pacers without the optional vinyl roof trim could be finished in several unique two-tone paint combinations^[18] that included front and rear body side scuff molding extensions. However, the top and bottom two-tone treatment was changed in 1977, to an "up and over the roof" accent paint scheme for the duration of production.^[19]

1979-1980 saw a hood ornament and center chrome strip down the hood. Power door locks were available in 1978; however it would be 1979 beforepower windows would join the option list.

[edit] International markets

[edit] Europe

French magazine advertisement from 1975.

AMC Pacer in Amsterdam

American Motors exported the Pacer to several European nations. The AMC distributor in Paris France, Jean-Charles, compared the rounded body of the new Pacer to another attractive rear-end shape in its magazine advertisements. Cars exported to Europe were available in higher trim levels.^[20] According to some reports, the Pacer sold well in Europe and even Brigitte Bardot is said to have promoted the car in Paris.^[21]

The level of current European interest in Pacers is indicated by the number of European nations listed in the AMC Pacer Registry,^[22] the members' cars in the Swedish AMC/Rambler Society,^[23] a German Pacer enthusiast Internet site,^[24] and the fact that a former AMC dealer in Germany^[25] stocked an inventory of original parts as recently as the early 2000s. A private museum in the Netherlands exhibits a Pacer wagon.^[26]

[edit] United Kingdom

AMC Pacer in UK

Unlike AMC's other models,^{[citation
needed]} the Pacer was only available with left-hand drive. The British importer for the Pacer converted the car from left-hand to right-hand drive by leaving the majority of the steering gear on the left-hand side of the car, and running a chain-drive behind the dashboard from the steering wheel (now on the right-hand side) to the top of the steering column. However, the car retained its unequal-length doors, designed for LHD markets, meaning that in the UK the longer door was on the driver's side, leaving the passengers to use the smaller door, which "in the typically confined British parking spot was virtually impossible."^[27]. The Pacer was wider than a Rolls-Royce Silver Shadow and slightly longer than the then-current Ford Cortina. ^[27].

The car was adversely reviewed by the motoring press and AMC soon stopped importing it.^[27]

[edit] Mexico

The Pacer was produced in Mexico by Vehículos Automotores Mexicanos (VAM) starting in 1976. The cars came with different engines, interiors, and other components because vehicles made in Mexico had to have at least 50% locally sourced parts. The engine was an AMC design, but modified and built by VAM. A unique to Mexico 282 cu in (4.62 L) I6 engine was standard. It was designed to cope with low octane fuel and high altitudes. This engine featured dished pistons with a 3.909-inch (99.3 mm) bore and 3.894-inch (98.9 mm) stroke, as well as a unique head and exhaust porting design. The V8 engine was not available in Mexico.

All Pacers built by VAM came with the following standard equipment: power disk brakes, power steering, handling package, slot wheels with ER78x14 radial tires, reclining front seats, and a radio.^[28] Only the coupe model was available. The Mexican Pacers also had different interior trim and seats that featured high-design upholstery that was not available in the U.S. models.^[29] For 1979, a total of 250 luxury and performance "Limited edition X" models were built using a modified 282 six-cylinder with an automatic transmission, air conditioning, sunroof, as well as other options.

[edit] Opinions

[edit] Magazines and newspapers

In 1975, the AMC Pacer was sleek and audacious; unlike anything else on the road and it looked like the car of the future.^[30] "The automotive press loved it."^[30]

The February 1975 issue of Motor Trend magazine called "it the most revolutionary American car in 15 years" and wrote, "Suddenly, it's 1980" recalling the famous Forward Look slogan.^[31]

Reviewers were positive about the Pacer's styling, and Small Cars magazine described the press preview that "admiration was an obvious reaction...the knowledgeable product writers knew without being told that they were privileged to be there to see something new in automobile design."^[30] Michael Lamm, writing in Popular Mechanics, said that with its "very modern styling, ample power and generous interior" he felt it was "more car" than "the Mustang II or "GM’s sporty compacts (Monza, Skyhawk/Starfire)", and that its performance felt "strong—certainly on a par with most V8s."^[32]

Automotive journalist and author Don Sherman wrote in the February 1975 issue of Car and Driver that it was "our first real urban transporter...There is, of course, the chance of monumental failure; it might be another Tucker ahead of its time or a pariah like the Marlin. But...with its high priority on comfortable and efficient travel and absence of Mach 2 styling, [it] at least seems right for the current state of duress. Consider this bold offering from AMC a test: Are we buying cars for transportation yet, or are they still social props?"^[1]

Road & Track magazine's April 1975 road test review described the Pacer's appearance as "bold, clean and unique...even when it's going 60 mph is looks as if it's standing still..." but noted that, even with the test car's optional front disc brakes, "in the usual panic-stop tests...our driver had one of his most anxious moments ever as the Pacer screeched, skidded and demanded expert attention at the steering wheel to keep from going altogether out of control. The histrionics are reflected in long stopping distances from highway speeds... [The car’s] engineering—old-fashioned and unimaginative in the extreme—does not match the perky design", which the magazine declared "most attractive to look at and pleasant to sit in."^[33]

In a follow up road test in August 1976, Motor Trend wrote: "Since its introduction in January of 1975, we have been quite smitten with AMC’s Pacer."^[34] Their only major gripes were the lackadaisical performance and the absence of a 4-speed transmission. A 2-barrel carburetor was offered on the larger six at the end of 1975, as well as a 4-speed manual, but the testers noted "the 2-bbl Pacer was faster than the 1-bbl car by a fair margin, it did not feel faster" (author's emphasis).^[34] Motor Trend described that: "Even with its compact exterior dimensions, the Pacer is one of the most comfortable 4-passenger cars around...The wide bucket seats were firm, but very comfortable...Front passenger leg room is extraordinary even with the seat racked well forward, and the rear seat leg room exceeds such full-sizers as the Buick Riviera and Continental Mark IV."^[34]

The Pacer received a facelift and an optional V8 engine in 1978, but retained the heavy-duty crash protection making its body bulkier and heavier than it would otherwise have been. By this point, the luster wore off the unique design and the press began badmouthing the Pacer's lack of power and performance as more sophisticated competitors were introduced.

[The Pacer features in several lists solicited from the general public and published online, e.g.:

MSNBC.com's 2005 "least-loved American autos".^[46]
Time.com's 2007 "50 Worst Cars of All Time".^[47]

"The Most Questionable Car Designs of All Time", a 2007 non-scientific survey of policyholders with a major collector-car insurance company.

Now old enough to be a "classic car", the Pacer has come to be regarded in some quarters as a 1970s design icon.^[50] (According to Business Week magazine the 1970s were "infamous for disco, Watergate and some of the ugliest cars ever." Nevertheless, in spite of their bad reputations, cars of the 1970s era such as the Pacer are becoming collectors' items. Business Week reported that the rising values of so-called "nerd cars" - ugly 1970s-era cars - prompted the CEO of a major collector-car insurance company to buy a Pacer, which has "inexplicably appreciated substantially beyond the $2,300 that he paid for it in 2004."^[53] In 2002 he said: "In what can sometimes be a sea of automotive sameness, the AMC Pacer continues to turn heads even today",^[55] and he put the value of a "mint Pacer" at "between $4000 and $6000", saying that "the increased value is fueled solely by the heart. This trend is all about a fascination with '70s things almost because they were so bad." (Author's emphasis.)

The Pacer has been described as one of the formerly unloved cars from the 1970s that are enjoying a resurgence in both collectibility and auto restoration — especially among fans of cars from that era.The Pacer is one of several 1970s cars that were always thought of as cheap vehicles; therefore they were poorly maintained, which reduced their life expectancy. Also the heavy engines used in the car put more load on the front suspension than intended, which caused the rack & pinion steering to fail frequently on Pacers built in 1975. One longtime collector-car expert says you will pay just about the same, around $20,000, for a complete restoration, whether it’s on a $1,000 1978 AMC Pacer or a $5,000 1969 Chevrolet Camaro. When restored, the value of the Pacer may be about $4,000, compared with the Camaro’s $25,000. Today the Pacer's originality, as well as its deficiencies, are appreciated, if not loved, by car hobbyists and serious collectors alike. Here's a heartwarming web site about one Pacer in particular.

There are many active AMC car clubs that welcome Pacers.^[60] Pacers share the drivetrain as well as other parts and components with AMC models, while new old stock (NOS), used, and reproduction parts are available from vendors specializing in AMC vehicles.